Asbestos Exposure on Destroyers

U.S.S. Alvin C. Cockrell DE-366 (Destroyer Escort, John C. Butler Class)

U.S.S. Alvin C. Cockrell Motto, “Cocked And Ready”

This ship and class was named for a US Marine, killed in combat during World War I, Captain Allen Alvin C. Cockrell. The Alvin C. Cockrell DE-366 class, with its 83 sister ships, saw some of the heaviest fighting in World War II, with three vessels in the class lost in WWII. Owing to America’s desperate shortage of ships, some safety concerns were ignored. Vessels such as the U.S.S. Cockrell went to sea, laden with asbestos. For all the speed in her construction, the Alvin C. Cockrell and her sister ships showed hardiness, and many of the vessels continued to be a reliable reservist, well into the 1960s and the Cold War world of the time.

The Cockrell was eventually used in American military policy, and had an important role, from both the Pacific and Atlantic Theaters. The crews of the U.S.S. Cockrell served widely, from a support role in Korea to sentry support in Cuba and to blunt Soviet expansion. The U.S.S. Alvin C. Cockrell, with its 6,000 nautical mile range, answered to the tactical radio call, “White Russia.”

Construction

Demand for faster ship production meant the Cockrell’s keel was laid in May 1944, and launched on June 27, 1944. Critics argued (both then and later) that some safety rules, such as indiscriminate use of asbestos in almost every corner of a ship, were ignored. This also reflected many shipbuilding practices of the time. Asbestos, the use of which had been banned in many countries before the war, saw explosive use by US Navy policy and in shipyards, sometimes even tripling in use.

Shipyards of the era, such as Consolidated Steel’s Orange, Texas yard, were later sold to successive owners. But they often failed to avoid the responsibility for what turned out to be a later epidemic of asbestos-related illnesses, both to builders and crew members.

Repairs and Upgrades

Battle conditions undoubtedly led to extensive asbestos exposure for thousands of crew members in the Navy. The extensive periods where the Cockrell had to stay at sea also contributed to asbestos exposure. Equipment, surfaces, and insulation (much of it coated with asbestos) deteriorated under these heavy periods of patrol. Owing to extreme conditions, hard choices were constantly being made about simply keeping vessels afloat. Once, in towing a valuable Naval ‘flying boat,’ the Cockrell’s equipment failed. The Cockrell’s Commander ordered the towed vessel to be sunk by gunfire.

Unknown to most of the crew members was a possibility that extensive uses of asbestos on the USS Cockrell, on gears and machinery used extensively every day, could jeopardize repair crews, but more stealthily than combat.

Asbestos on vessels such as the Alvin C. Cockrell was used over many decades, since a Navy policy to discourage asbestos in vessels didn’t really change until the 1970s. Since the Cockrell remained in reservist status until 1968, this could have meant decades of exposure to asbestos to hundreds of crewmembers, contractors, and shipyard repairmen.

Asbestos Risks On the U.S.S. Alvin C. Cockrell (DD-692)

Wartime battle needs on vessels such as the Alvin C. Cockrell DD-692 probably had unnecessary asbestos uses. Various pumps were later shown by asbestos experts to have been able to operate safely without asbestos. But potential dangers of explosions and fire led some manufacturers to insulate some gaskets and engineering machines, which might not otherwise be susceptible to fire or high temperatures.

As these WWII-era vessels reached the ends of usefulness, risks of deteriorating asbestos also became even more common. The U.S.S.. Alvin C. Cockrell was still maintained and updated, even as she entered reservist duty in the 1960s. In replacing and updating the Cockrell’s equipment, the Navy typically did not require what are regarded as “modern” safety procedures for handling asbestos, or asbestos-coated wiring and equipment. In 1969, the U.S.S. Cockrell was towed to offshore California and sunk as a target.

U.S.S. Barker (DD-213)

The U.S.S. Barker DD-213 was named after Admiral Albert Barker, who had died only three years before the Barker’s keel was laid at William Cramp and Sons Delaware River shipyard. The Barker went on to be well-decorated, as she and her crew won two battle stars in World War II.

Construction

There were interesting contradictions when it came to the history of the U.S.S. Barker. She had been built at one of the Navy’s most trusted contractor yards, William Cramp & Sons. The speed of the Barker’s construction was outstanding and may have been due to a desire to avoid post-World War I government contracts being canceled. The Barker herself had narrowly averted being scrapped with the 1923 Naval Limitations Treaty, which had been seen as a major success for President Harding. As with most vessels of the day, speed was a priority, and construction relied on asbestos throughout the ship. But in the 1940s, William Cramp’s successes in building earlier Navy vessels were not duplicated. For example, the production schedule for submarines was a failure, and it took almost two years for the Yard to produce a sub. Yet the Barker, the product of an earlier age, kept on successfully sailing into the 1930s, and eventually helping the fight against the Axis.

Massive overhauls were also to be very common, as vessels of the early 20th century Clemson-class got older. These overhauls often exposed old asbestos, as well as meaning re-applying new asbestos: to wiring, bulkheads, equipment, and temperature sensitive tools, gaskets, and fittings, and also due to the almost continual worldwide uses of the U.S.S. Barker. Asbestos was a common fix for fire hazards and for insulation against harsh marine conditions. Years later, experts wished there had been more concern about the risks of asbestos.

Repairs and Upgrades

The original adaptability and speed of the U.S.S. Barker, at 314 feet in length but able to do 35 knots, was one reason the vessel was so dependable, from 1919 and through virtually almost every day of WWII. In that time, the Barker watched out for US interests in the Middle East, China (and for two years) off the coast of Nicaragua. Unaware of the risks of asbestos, it was not uncommon for crew members in the tight workers of such vessels to be mere inches away from asbestos during much of the day.

The U.S.S. Barker’s importance to growing US world influence after WWI was reflected in her repair history and upgrades: often replacing asbestos in bulkheads or in engine equipment. She was simply too valuable as a versatile light destroyer to let lay idle. Strikes and sorties against Japanese shipping and strongholds lasted through almost all of 1941. The Barker took a series of near-misses from a Japanese attack, causing extensive buckling to her hull. Desperate repairs forced the fighting Barker back to the American mainland in late 1942. The Barker made it home for a complete overhaul at the Mare Island Naval Yards in the summer of 1942.

The rest of that year saw her performing supply and escort duties in the Caribbean. Barker soon left US territorial waters to perform submarine warfare. After the better part of a year in that duty, Barker then shifted to trans-Atlantic escort duty.

Asbestos Risks On the U.S.S. Barker (DD-213)

Aging battleships such as the U.S.S. Barker played a vital role in Pacific strategy. The flexibility and experience of the Barker aided attacks on Japanese strongholds while delivering desperately needed material to our Allies. But due to the great risks of fire on aging destroyers such as the Barker, literally tons of asbestos were also used. Decks, bulkheads, even asbestos firesuits and electrical wiring were all commonly asbestos-coated.

What to do with an aging vessel such as the Barker was also a problem. Scrapping war vessels, it was later known, meant exposing many of the workers, from crew to civilian employees, to asbestos and asbestos fibers. After leaving the Far East for the last time, the U.S.S. Barker was sent to the Philadelphia Naval Yard. There, after having her equipment stripped, she was sold for scrap to a now unknown private company.

U.S.S. Barney DDG-6 (Guided Missile Destroyer Charles F. Adams Class)

The history of the U.S.S. Barney, known to her crews as “The Grey Ghost” and by her radio call, Bandmaster.

Named for Joshua Barney, a famed and early United States Commodore. Barney (born in 1759) served gallantly, first in the Revolutionary War, and then again throughout the War of 1812. Commodore Barney served on the famed Wasp, and then captured his own vessel….turning her into a privateer to attack the British. Captured and taken to an English prison, Barney escaped and rejoined the US Navy. As with her namesake, there has not been another U.S.S. Barney.

Launched finally for her shakedown cruise on New Year’s Day, 1963, Naval planning was becoming crucial in facing Cold War threats, from Cuba through Indochina. The planning for the Barney had taken six years to evolve, which changed her designation (she was originally DD-956) and design….which led to extensive refits during the U.S.S. Barney’s service over four decades. But it wasn’t, unfortunately, until the end of her initial decade that the Navy changed asbestos safety policies. Ironically, as the Cold war heated up, and the US Navy finally addressed indiscriminate asbestos exposure, the Soviet Union finally accelerated its own use of asbestos.

Construction

The U.S.S. Barney had her keel laid by New York Shipbuilding in 1957, which had been one of America’s most successful shipyards. After WWII, however, the shipyard suffered from lost contracts. By the time of finishing the Barney in 1960, New York Shipbuilding’s biggest days were behind her. As the years went by, it also became apparent how many common industry practices of those times had included dangerous exposure to asbestos, in all phases of ship construction, repair, operation, and maintenance.

Interestingly, although launched in 1960, the U.S.S. Barney was not commissioned until August 1962.

Repairs and Upgrades

The tasks of the Barney were complicated, from her initial missile firing abilities to anti-sub exercises with the French navy. Decades later, experts have identified these common times of emergency repairs as possible times of asbestos exposure.

For seven months in 1967, the Barney’s crew worked off of North and South Vietnam. Though not taking a direct hit, a crew member was hit by enemy shrapnel. By the end of her service in Vietnam, refits were becoming more common to missile destroyers like the U.S.S. Barney. Marine engineering experts have pointed out the risks to those working to keep outdated vessels modernized, frequently without preventing asbestos-related injuries. The last major refitting of the Barney came during the 1970s, with the costly “New Threat Upgrade” system. It still remains debated, in removing and replacing the miles of cable used in a vessel such as the Barney, whether any concern about asbestos risks to the crew and civilian workers guided these refits. The U.S.S. Barney DDG-6 had a complete overhaul at the Philadelphia Naval Yard in 1975.

Asbestos Risks On the U.S.S. Barney (DDG-6)

In addition to inherent asbestos uses involved in upgrading this era of the Charles F. Adams-vessel class, modifications required for the increasingly sophisticated Cold War also caused more potential risks of working with asbestos. In 1972, the process of replacing the Barney’s entire fuel system was begun. Experts have noted one of the most common places for asbestos exposure in older Naval vessels was in the engine room. Asbestos was used in order to insulate crewmembers from the fire dangers associated with high temperatures. The Barney’s fuel system conversion lasted for almost six months, into the spring of 1973.

The Barney was struck from Navy rolls in 1992. Metro Machine bought the hulk of the vessel, and she was broken up in Philadelphia. The awareness of the dangers of asbestos eventually contributed to safer shipbuilding practices. Where scrapping was once accomplished within months, the Barney and any asbestos aboard her was not finally (and more safely) removed and scrapped until 2006.

U.S.S. Baron DE-166 (Destroyer Escort. Class: Cannon)

The History of the U.S.S. Baron

Richard Baron was responsible for the operation of a US Naval yard in the Philippines. Baron was nominated for a Navy Cross for heroism in fighting back against the Japanese, in their attacking the Philippines on December 10, 1941. Baron received the award, posthumously, because a later Japanese attack led to his death, as he again acted heroically: this time attempting to save crucial military documents from a US Navy building under attack in Cebu City.

The U.S.S. Baron and her crew were eventually awarded three battle stars for WWII service. As with most vessels of the age, America quickly increased its consumption of asbestos in the construction and repair of desperately needed destroyer escorts such as the Baron DE-166. The history of the Baron paralleled the Navy’s victories in the Pacific, and America’s later support for emerging democracies in South America.

Construction

The Federal Shipbuilding and Drydock Company laid the keel in the fall of 1942, only eight months after Lieutenant Commander Baron had been killed in Cebu. Designed for a crew of under 200, Baron launched in May 1943.

Decades later, the risks of asbestos became more obvious in both constructing and operating vessels such as the Baron. Federal Shipbuilding and Drydock records later demonstrated work conditions at a shipyard wasn’t easy, mostly due to the expected need to quickly prepare ships to invade mainland Japan. But this speed also rested on the widespread use of asbestos. The threat of asbestos, however, was rarely known by the workers and crews most in touch with it. In rushing to meet the need for an invasion armada, both crew members (such as on the U.S.S. Baron) and probably also shipyard employees, were at risk because of widespread asbestos uses throughout naval vessels. Experts have now pointed out how even tools, as well as bulkheads and insulation and weapons, routinely used asbestos.

Repairs and Upgrades

The U.S.S. Baron left New York, heading directly into the most dangerous work in the Pacific. These long periods of patrol typically led to at-sea repairs exposing, using and replacing asbestos. Unexploded mines, for example, were a danger to all vessels in Japanese shipping lanes, with explosions becoming more common as the end of the war approaching. The U.S.S. Baron’s end-of-war duty was first to train ships to become sub hunters. From September to November 1944, Baron was at Mare Island for overhaul. These periods of overhaul typically meant working in close quarters, cramped and hot work with asbestos only inches away, or being torn out and re-wrapping pipes and boilers with new asbestos. After her extensive overhaul, the Baron spent the rest of her duty mostly on patrol for submarines, as the Navy closed a circle around Japan.

Machinists and those who made engine or equipment repairs were found to have been most at risk of asbestos-related illnesses. Yet, as later findings about asbestos were to finally show, using asbestos to lower fire risks, as well as for hull and engine insulation, also meant asbestos was often present in almost all parts of a vessel such as the Baron. Asbestos use on US Navy ships after WWIII even increased during the Cold War. Only in the 1970s did the Navy adopt rules about asbestos for safety improvements to help protect US Navy crews and shipyard workers.

Asbestos Risks On the U.S.S. Baron (DE-166)

Special concerns about fire and explosions meant asbestos was used widely throughout possibly vulnerable areas of vessels, such as the U.S.S. Baron. Many crew members on similar destroyer escorts later told of how they slept, “inches away” from exposed asbestos.

The fate of the U.S.S. Baron became a common story for America’s battle-weary vessels. The Baron was eventually decommissioned (in 1946), but her important role in American policy was far from done. What to do with mothballed US ships, especially laden with asbestos, has been a problem since the end of WWII. First, many naval vessels are cannibalized for parts and useful equipment. Before the 1970s, this meant possible exposure to more asbestos. Eventually, the U.S.S. Baron was sent to the government of Uruguay. In 1990, she was scrapped, ending her three decades of service to the navy of Uruguay.

U.S.S. Barton DD-599 (Destroyer, Benson-Class)

The History of the U.S.S. Barton

The Barton was named for John Kennedy Barton. Barton was born in 1851, Philadelphia, and rose to prominence as the US Navy moved to steam power. Barton excelled as a teacher, too, and had several tours of duty at the Naval Academy. But his advancement was tied, most of all, to his knowledge of how to build and maintain steam engines. And with the Navy’s growing reliance on steam, came the American reliance on asbestos to insulate the engines and boilers.

Barton served as an Admiral for only two days and retired due to illness. His namesake vessel was to fight in one of the first pivotal sea battles with the Japanese, the First Sea Battle of Guadalcanal. Though the Barton never survived the Pacific Theater, her courageous tradition and name did live on. Unfortunately, the health problems associated with asbestos also caused later decades of profound problems as well.

Construction

The U.S.S. Barton DD-599 had her keel laid by Bethlehem Steel’s Fore River Shipyard. Barton, as a Benson-Class destroyer, was a jump forward in ship design from the old four-stack design. Yet it was still to suffer from widespread asbestos use. Wisely (but in Barton’s case, uselessly), the new Benson-class design alternated boiler and engine rooms, to help protect against torpedo attack. Scantlings were added to support the U.S.S. Barton’s extra weight. Decades later, studies suggested that asbestos was a common element in protecting most of these WWII power plants.

Construction of the day put an emphasis on controlling the risks of fire while ignoring what was by then fairly well known about asbestos. This combination of tactical and economical choices meant asbestos was used in vessels such as the Barton, for miles of insulation and in dozens of uses….from gaskets, boilers, and engines, or armament and machinery that were likely to be subject to severe heat or fire risks.

Repairs and Upgrades

The new, anti-torpedo designs of the Benson-class vessel called for an extra sixty tons. The designers also counted on asbestos for fire suppression, and the high temperatures of her gun emplacements also meant asbestos was liberally used in the unique engine/boiler configuration. The blow at Pearl guaranteed the Barton would be at sea for extended periods. This also meant repairs would often be at sea, often under urgent need. The Battle at Guadalcanal, for example, brought the ships within a mile of each other before either side had first visual contact. The Americans had an advantage, with better radar that had detected the Japanese fleet’s proximity. Even this tactical advantage would carry some risk to other crews, history showed, since asbestos was often used to protect this new equipment from high temperatures, too.

Asbestos Risks On the U.S.S. Barton (DD-599)

Though active for less than a year, the Barton remains an honored vessel in US Naval history. The Barton sailed literally into the thickest part of hell on November 13, 1942, and allowed herself to be completely “enveloped” by the enemy in order to protect another US vessel. At one crucial point, to avoid ramming a sister ship, the Barton stopped engines and saved that ship. It was at that point, as the Barton attempted to restart her engines, two Japanese torpedoes struck the Barton: 164 men died, as the Barton sank in a matter of minutes. Her crew’s valor was eventually reflected in the award of four battle stars.

Asbestos was used as a fire retardant in literally hundreds of places on vessels such as the U.S.S. Barton. Experts later proved there were many ways in which asbestos could be spread throughout cramped areas of vessels such as the Barton. The asbestos fibers were often carried on clothing, for example, and might have exposed people second-hand. Bethlehem Steel, which had constructed the U.S.S. Barton, eventually had to address their extensive uses of asbestos in the history of Naval construction.

U.S.S. Chauncey DD-667 (Fletcher-Class, Destroyer)

The History of the U.S.S. Chauncey:

The U.S.S. Chauncey was named after Isaac Chauncey, a long-serving naval officer who fought both in the Revolution and 1812. Chauncey won bold victories over the British in the Great Lakes, as well as performing duties as a respected shipyard superintendent at the New York Naval Yard. Chauncey, however, served as Naval Yard Superintendent at a time when asbestos was not as widely used in vessels. The U.S.S. Chauncey would go on to protect many of the most important Allied marine routes in the Second World War, from the Caribbean to the Pacific.

Just as her namesake had served into two separate centuries, the U.S.S. Chauncey would make contributions in two very different eras, at two crucial times in US history.

Construction

The U.S.S. Chauncey came from one of the oldest shipyards on the Eastern seaboard, the Federal Shipbuilding and Drydock Company. That yard, in Kearny, New Jersey, developed incredibly quick production schedules: from November 1942 when the Chauncey’s keel was laid, it took only four months to her launch. To help meet production demands, most shipyards turned to increased asbestos uses.

After launch, the Chauncey had three months of shakedown. By August of 1943, she was bound to Hawaii to become part of ferocious Pacific fighting. Long tours at sea held special asbestos risks to these crews. As a Fletcher-class destroyer, the USS Chauncey’s design was perfect, both for screening carriers and in supporting troop landings on islands

Repairs and Upgrades

The site of the U.S.S. Chauncey’s construction (Federal Shipbuilding and Drydock) used asbestos at various times. Asbestos was not only a potential risk to the Federal Shipbuilding workers, but to the onboard crewmembers, involved in the emergency repairs and upgrades that a US Naval destroyer such as the Chauncey DD-667 soon required.

By early October 1943, Chauncey’s crew had become an integral part of a fast carrier task force. After this period of heavy duty, including almost daily attacks by Japanese forces, the Chauncey required an extensive overhaul in 1944, back in Pearl. Experts note these periods of repair, aimed at getting a vital vessel back into service, also meant exposure to asbestos. Soon, she was back at sea and again in the thick of battle. The crew eventually won seven battle stars in WWII.

After WWII, the Chauncey was officially placed into vessel reservist status. Because of her heavy battle use, she needed extensive work to keep her battle ready. But the Chauncey was not done, and she went on to win two more battles stars in Korea. It was not to be until almost thirty years later that the US Navy did finally admit to the many dangers in scrapping a vessel. Great risks of releasing asbestos fibers came along with removing what were sometimes miles of a naval vessel’s asbestos-insulated wiring.

Asbestos Risks On the U.S.S. Chauncey (DD-667)

Though asbestos was a known medical risk by the time the U.S.S. Chauncey was built, there were few safeguards for crew exposed to asbestos. Federal Shipbuilding and Drydock came in for special attention, as lawsuits drew connections between asbestos use and worker and crew exposure. Other asbestos-related lawsuits described the possibility of wide and common use of asbestos on vessels of the era, such as the U.S.S. Chauncey. Yet another lawsuit proved tools used by workers might have had asbestos in their components.

Much of the asbestos risk would be made even worse if repairs were needed at sea, under treacherous conditions. Commonly crowded, cramped living and working conditions didn’t help stop a crewman from inhaling asbestos. Designed to have a crew of 273, the Chauncey’s actual complement was sometimes as high as 319. Asbestos could be present in many unexpected places, since it was used to prevent fire as well as to insulate equipment from fire or heat. Evidence later proved, however, that there had likely been insufficient attention to protecting workers from asbestos.

U.S.S. Chevalier DD-451 (Destroyer, Fletcher-Class)

The History of the U.S.S. Chevalier

The bravery of American Naval crews is associated with the story of the Chevalier. The U.S.S. Chevalier was named for Godfrey Chevalier, who was an early and important air combat pilot (“Naval Aviator”) in the US Navy. Chevalier was part of the pioneering efforts to use shipboard catapults. Ironically, the use of asbestos represented a lack of innovation, and was to prove an under-reported danger in many future vessels. Chevalier died in 1922 as a result of an air crash. In the same tradition, the U.S.S. Chevalier, and her crew fought bravely, helping to begin the process of defeating Japan’s navy. By the end of her less than two years of service, the Chevalier and her crew had won three battle stars.

Construction

The Chevalier DD-451 became part of a desperate American attempt to recover from the devastation at Pearl. One result was the frequent ignoring of vessel construction safety…such as whether or not to use asbestos throughout a vessel such as the U.S.S. Chevalier. The Chevalier was launched as one of 175 Fletcher-class destroyers.

The U.S.S. Chevalier was constructed at the famous Bath Iron Works in Bath, Maine. Chevalier’s widow christened the destroyer at launch. The Chevalier went into action just three months after her commission and quick shakedown cruises.

Repairs and Upgrades

Between laying mines and assisting with landing operations, the U.S.S. Chevalier provided the dangerous work of screening other vessels. With a crew complement of 273, many of the urgent repairs on vessels such as the U.S.S. Chevalier were accomplished by a highly talented crew. While many asbestos injuries were to engineer’s mates and pipefitters, other crew members were also put at risk, on Navy vessels such as the U.S.S. Chevalier. In the event of a particular emergency, any crewmember might be exposed to damaged and exposed asbestos.

Following one heavy action, a sister ship (the U.S.S. Strong) was severely crippled and began to sink. The Chevalier deliberately rammed into the Strong, with the purpose of letting crew members from the doomed U.S.S. Strong quickly climb onboard the Chevalier. The brilliant maneuver was successful and the Chevalier’s quick action saved 241 crewmembers. As a result, the Chevalier continued on, with a 10’ tear in her bow, but still afloat. Decades later, experts found evidence of how these periods of at-sea repair could have exposed workers to dangerously exposed and damaged asbestos.

Two months later, as the final battle for the Solomons heated up, the U.S.S. Chevalier was part of a four-group US task force. Discovering nine Japanese destroyers, the task force attacked, despite being outnumbered more than two to one. With 54 of her crew killed, the Chevalier was crippled and sinking…yet she still fought on, torpedoing an enemy destroyer and apparently sinking her.

Asbestos Risks On the U.S.S. Chevalier (DD-451)

The U.S.S. Chevalier became a famous part of Bath Shipbuilding history. Only after several decades were many of these symptoms finally conceded by the Navy and shipyards. Unfortunately, even small amounts of asbestos exposure could carry high risks of many diseases. Later lawsuits were to show asbestos was a dangerous risk to thousands of crew members and workers. Sometimes, diseases and illnesses even being possibly linked to “second hand” asbestos, which had been carried on a yard worker’s gear.

As American naval planners in 1939 looked at a potential world war, they began to work with limited resources to build a band of navy steel around America. The Fletcher-class of destroyers, including the U.S.S. Chevalier, were criticized as lacking sufficient reliability. The result was a massive redesign of the 1939 class. Unfortunately, the urgency of the times also seemed to excuse the extensive, and dangerous, use of asbestos in constructing and maintaining vessels such as the immortal U.S.S. Chevalier.

U.S.S. Chew DD-106 (Destroyer Wickes-Class)

The History of the U.S.S. Chew:

Named for Samuel Chew, an American Revolutionary leader who was born in Connecticut. Chew attacked a much more heavily armed British frigate in 1778. To defend his ship (the Resistance), Chew led a hand-to-hand battle, in which he was mortally wounded, but the desperate fight let Resistance successfully break off the lopsided engagement, and she successfully retreated. A hundred and thirty years later, Chew was honored with the naming of the USS Chew.

Bethlehem Steel Company designed the WWI-era vessel, but eventually received criticism by comparison with the competing Bath-designed Wickes-class. Regardless of which design was used, asbestos was an essential feature of most of these vessels. By 1944, the aging U.S.S. Chew was an important part of the Pacific fleet, based in Honolulu and providing screening and escort duties. The Chew and her crew won a battle star in WWII.

Construction

Originally commissioned in 1918, the Chew was one of the 111 Fletcher-class “four stackers” of the US Navy. The U.S.S. Chew was hurriedly brought back into WWII service. The US Navy desperately needed the vessel and her crew to be flexible. This reflected the aging Chew’s need for more frequent repairs. As experts later pointed out, an aging vessel also probably meant more asbestos exposure.

Asbestos uses were shown to have been used and caused unfortunate results decades later. One lawsuit profiled the asbestos in mechanical pumps commonly (but not always) used by vessels like the Chew’s shipyard (Union Iron Works).

Repairs and Upgrades

To help fight the Axis, the Chew was recommissioned for four years, from 1940 to 1945. That she was desperately needed was shown by her recommissioning, a year before the attack on Pearl Harbor. And the Chew was actually in Pearl when the Japanese attacked on December 7, 1941. One of the few US vessels getting into action, her crew splashed a number of attacking Japanese planes.

During her five years of heavy service, the Chew was extensively redesigned. Almost certainly, this restructuring meant exposing literally tons of asbestos. Gone were three of the Chews original stacks, and the installation of new engines and turbines. Experts noted the asbestos was especially prominent in engine use. Many years later, it seemed that the health costs of these structural changes, to vessels like the Chew, had a long-lasting effect, with possible asbestos-related illnesses appearing, decades later.

Asbestos Risks On the U.S.S. Chew (DD-106)

The asbestos risks on vessels such as the Chew, historians pointed out, came from some unexpected sources. Few crew members learned of the real dangers of using so much asbestos, even as many crew members later described how they often must have breathed in asbestos fibers, on a US Naval vessel similar to the U.S.S. Chew.

Asbestos was a leading material for handling ship fires or explosions, as well as in controlling engine temperatures. Asbestos was also a preferred material inside of many types of machinery common to vessel such as the Chew, from radar and even to hull insulation over bunks. By the end of the War in the Pacific, the Chew (along with its potential asbestos hazards) was sold to an unknown shipping business.

By the start of WWII, the US Navy and most shipyards had shared with each other some of the known risks of asbestos. Decades later, as symptoms related to asbestos became obvious, the US Navy finally began to fix its asbestos use policy. But these changes in using asbestos came too late for courageous crews, such as those who served so well on the U.S.S. Chew.

U.S.S. Clarence K. Bronson DD-668 (Destroyer, Fletcher-Class)

The History of the U.S.S. Clarence K. Bronson:

This ship and class was named for Lieutenant Clarence K. Bronson. Bronson was one of the very first aviators flying for the Navy; Bronson died in a plane crash, following experiments to test aerial bombs.

The Fletcher class was used for some of the heaviest fighting in World War II’s Pacific Theater. By the end of the war, at least 29 Imperial Fleet subs were sunk by Fletchers. This meant heavy risks for ships such the Bronson. Later, experts also noted the exposure and handling of asbestos during these intense periods had serious results, too. The Clarence K. Bronson and her sister ships also showed an incredible resilience, since so many of the vessels continued to be a reliable vessel into the 1970s.

Eventually, this class of vessel was used to build American Cold War policy, and ships from its class were eventually used by American allies, including Taiwan, and Chile, the Hellenic Navy, and were sold to half a dozen South American nations. Few of these countries ever addressed the commonly used asbestos.

Construction

The keel of the U.S.S. Bronson was laid down almost one year to the day after the attack on Pearl Harbor. The ship was one well over 100 initially commissioned in the Fletcher-class, and experts generally regarded it as one of WWII’s most successful ships. Unfortunately, the ship designs of the time also relied on asbestos in large volumes in most vessels of the era.

As the demands for faster ship production occurred, the government handed out Fletcher-class contracts among many American shipyards. The Clarence K. Bronson came out of the Federal Shipbuilding and Drydock, in Kearny, New Jersey. Laid down in December 1942, the Bronson launched in April 1943. This speed in building meant some safety rules were ignored or relaxed to meet the need in the Pacific (where almost all the Fletchers were sent).

Asbestos, the use of which had been banned in several countries before the war, saw an amazing increase in use by US shipyards, sometimes tripling in total use by the end of WWII. Regardless, the six shipyards that hustled to meet the demands of the Fletcher-class saw their workers meet incredibly demanding timetables. Decades later, many major shipyards of the time, even if they were later sold, couldn’t automatically ignore a legal duty for the later epidemic of asbestos-related sicknesses.

Repairs and Upgrades

Repairing vessels was tough work under the best of circumstances, let alone working in battle conditions. As an example of these risks, a story about the Bronson aptly showed the bravery of the crew during the Philippine Sea Battle. Many aviators, lost in the dark, could not find their home ships. Inviting attack from the enemy, the U.S.S. Bronson lit up the night sky with her spotlights to guide the US aviators “home” to her deck. Unknown to most of the crew members was the chance of asbestos putting them at risk, albeit years after being in the combat zone.

Exposure to asbestos on the Clarence K. Bronson class vessels took place over decades. This was because the Naval policy of asbestos use was dangerously slow to change. Unfortunately, it was not until the 1970s that asbestos was banned. Owing to its reliability and design, the Clarence K. Bronson remained a working vessel for most of these years for other nations. Asbestos was also used when a vessel such as the Bronson added new equipment in the Cold War era. In 1959, new equipment was brought on board the Bronson as she took part in important new experimental technology (the Underwater Sound Laboratory experiments). In terms of dangers, these many years of repair after the war also meant potential exposure to asbestos as the Bronson aged and was upgraded and possibly asbestos-coated wiring torn out.

Asbestos Risks On the U.S.S. Clarence K. Bronson (DD-668)

Wartime conditions on a vessel such as the U.S.S. Clarence K. Bronson probably led to cases of technically unnecessary uses of asbestos. Various pumps in the engine room were later known to have been able to run safely without asbestos. The real dangers of battle and fire led to insulating a great number of gaskets or machinery that might not otherwise have been exposed to fire or high temperatures. For crew members, this could mean asbestos fibers in the air, on their gear or tools, or even over their bunks.

As a typical WWII vessel reached the end of her life, special risks from unknown asbestos became more common. After three decades of service, from island hopping and in the Occupation (nine battle stars), to Korea (another battle star), the U.S.S. Clarence K. Bronson was sold first to the government of Turkey in 1967. She was sold for scrap in 1987.

U.S.S. Claxton DD-140 (Wickes-Class Destroyer)

The History of the U.S.S. Claxton:

This aging but important vessel carried the name of Thomas Claxton. The Claxton was to become a highly reliable workhorse of several navies, but was usually still protecting American shipping and interest in some way all during her lifetime. One irony of her service was in her transfer to Britain, which had for decades largely banned asbestos from the UK’s own vessels. The U.S.S. Claxton was part of the vessel class that would carry much of the fighting in the Pacific, with nine of the destroyers sunk in battle.

Construction

The U.S.S. Claxton’s keel was laid at Mare Island Navy Yard in 1918 and launched in January 1919. The times represented great advances in vessel technology. Most yards of the era, however, relied on what would later become linked to a host of potentially deadly illnesses…asbestos. The importance of Wickes-class destroyers was seen in the more than doubling of orders from the US Navy. The Claxton was one of these additionally ordered ships. The U.S.S. Claxton was to be one of the answers to a dual war needs: (1) to face submarine dangers and (2) the need for screening other US Naval vessels. Congress originally budgeted for only 50 vessels like the Claxton. This represented the fact of “destroyers” being a new concept in 1918 American naval warfare.

As carriers and slower moving vessels were needed, high speed and mass production became an essential part of the Wickes-class. Specs called for the Claxton to reach more than 35 knots. Asbestos, in increasingly large amounts, was seen as an economical part of the answer to increased production. This meant massive overhauls could add longevity to older vessels, and were common to vessels of the Wickes-class such as the Claxton. These periods of alternating use and renovation were apparent in the revolving use of the U.S.S. Claxton. Decommissioned in 1922, recommissioned in 1930, decommissioned in 1940, and then transferred to Greta Britain (and renamed HMS Salisbury).

After she was recommissioned for WWII service, surface torpedoes were seen as a threat. Desperately needed vessels like the Claxton went through reconstruction, to accommodate depth charges in lower levels and decreasing top weight. Once again, asbestos was used in areas of a vessel that might be vulnerable to high temperatures or explosion. These massive ship rebuilding efforts exposed old asbestos, while adding new asbestos. Asbestos was commonly used in wiring, equipment, heat-sensitive tools and gaskets, and even in bulkheads.

Repairs and Upgrades

The adaptability of the U.S.S. Claxton’s “flush deck” allowed her speed to increase, allowing Wickes-class destroyers to keep up with US light cruisers. Few insulating materials were more preferred for affordability, as was asbestos, even when engineers apparently became aware of its dangers.

Asbestos Risks On the U.S.S. Claxton (DD-140)

Destroyers became a dominant part of US Pacific strategy. Their flexibility aided attacks on Japanese strongholds while replenishing desperately needed air support and material. But owing to the great risks of fire on destroyers, tons of asbestos was also a common ingredient in vessels such as the DD-140. Decks, bulkheads, asbestos fire suits, and electrical wiring were all commonly asbestos-insulated.

How to scrap an aging vessel, such as the Claxton, presented special health problems. Scrapping these old vessels, it was later proved, would often expose many workers, from ship crew to civilians, to asbestos, as well as asbestos dust and fibers. These processes of decommissioning often involved removal of salvageable equipment. Once again, this detailed removal was possibly linked to asbestos-related illness. In those days, even as crews bravely faced extreme danger, few of them were adequately protected from asbestos exposure. On June 26, 1944, the process of dismantling the great old Claxton was begun.

U.S.S. Cogswell DD-651 (Destroyer, Fletcher-Class)

The History of the U.S.S. Cogswell. Nickname, “Broadside”

The Cogswell was actually named after two people: a rear Admiral (James Kelsey) and a courageous WWI Captain (Francis). Admiral Cogswell was born in 1847, and for his “conspicuous bravery” in the Spanish-American war won promotion to Commodore. Admiral Cogswell’s son, Francis Cogswell was to win the Navy Cross, with pioneering leadership on two separate US destroyers. The U.S.S. Cogswell and her crew served as heroically as did her familial namesakes, in very similar ways, repeatedly acting to screen dozens of sister ships. Eventually, the Cogswell and crew earned an impressive nine battle stars.

Owing to the durability of the Fletcher-class to which U.S.S. Cogswell belonged and with extensive repairs (with asbestos in widespread use), the U.S.S. Cogswell, in the 1950s, became an important part of the American response to Chinese aggression in Korea and then again (very briefly) in Vietnam.

Construction

The Bath Iron Works laid the Cogswell’s keel in the summer of 1943, as the great Pacific battles were shortly to come. The Admirals’ daughter and the Captain’s widow both christened the U.S.S. Cogswell when she launched in June 1943. The Cogswell followed the specs of Fletcher-class destroyers made at the Bath Iron Works. As was common at the time, these destroyers commonly used great amounts of asbestos in heat-sensitive areas.

Decades later, the risks of asbestos became more obvious, both in the construction and operation of vessels such as the U.S.S. Cogswell. Experts noted Bath Iron Works work and purchase records might prove work conditions at similar shipyards were often hazardous, in part because of asbestos. In rushing to meet the Japanese threat, crew and yard workers were too often unwarned and unprotected from asbestos.

Repairs and Upgrades

Early post-war duties were far from safe, and emergencies often led to temporary repairs using exposed asbestos. Unexploded mines, for example, were a plague to Allied vessels operating around Japan, and explosions were all too common. While the Cogswell worked with others to clear mines, several of the Cogswell’s sister ships suffered explosions. Owing to the prevalence of asbestos in so many US Naval shipyards and vessels, emergency repairs often placed repair crews at risk. First, by making repairs when large amounts of asbestos were exposed. Second, repairs at sea to damaged ship structure and machinery also often meant dealing with asbestos. This was one reason Naval machinists mates were, over the years, disproportionately sickened by wartime asbestos exposure on vessels.

As the many investigations regarding asbestos use proved, safety systems to protect against fire meant asbestos was possibly inhaled, in almost all areas of naval vessels such as the Cogswell.

Though the frantic pace of WWII shipbuilding such as at Bath Iron Works slowed down, the fiscal pressures after WWII made surviving vessels such as the Fletcher-class Cogswell even more valuable. This is why the Cogswell was recommissioned in 1951. But renovations, including miles of new cables coated in asbestos, may have added to asbestos risks. In fact, asbestos use on US Navy ships actually increased after WWII. Only in the 1970s did concerns about asbestos lead to comprehensive, mandatory improvements for crews and yard workers who dealt with asbestos.

Asbestos Risks On the U.S.S. Cogswell (DD-651)

Special concerns about fire meant asbestos was heavily used throughout vulnerable areas of the Cogswell. Some crew members on similar destroyers later testified about sleeping “inches away” from asbestos. By the time changes in asbestos policy were fully implemented, the Cogswell had fallen victim to 1960s massive changes in US Naval policy. In October 1969, she was fully decommissioned.

The fate of the U.S.S. Cogswell, though not unusual, also tells a somewhat sad story for many of America’s historic Fletcher-class vessels. The Cogswell was finally decommissioned in 1969, in order to be sent to the Turkish government. The vessel was cannibalized for parts and equipment, and then fully broken into pieces for scrap by the Turkish government in 1980.

U.S.S. Cole DD-155 (Destroyer, Wickes-Class)

The History of the U.S.S. Cole:

Named for Edward “Ned” Cole, who was a highly decorated Marine who rose to hold the rank of Major. Major Cole was to die of wounds in a French field hospital in 1918. Part of his legacy included extensive training and development of the machine gun in combat. The U.S.S. Cole was also the first escort vessel for the very first US carrier (U.S.S. Langley). Sadly, the vessel named for Major Cole may well have passed on another, less welcome legacy: undiscovered injuries caused by asbestos on many Wickes-class vessels.

The Cole was one of the older US Navy destroyers that narrowly managed to survive scrapping under post-Armistice treaty goals. The resulting shortage of destroyers was to be a serious problem for America after Pearl Harbor. Saving the U.S.S. Cole from an early retirement was lucky, since by the end of World War II, the Cole and her crew would be awarded three battle stars and a Presidential Unit Citation.

Construction

The U.S.S. Cole DD-155 had her keel laid, ironically enough, only a week after Major Cole died. William Cramp & Sons launched the vessel in January 1919. She was a nimble ship, at something just over 300 feet overall, and with under a 9-foot draft. At the time, she used some of the first geared turbines. Decades later, studies suggested that asbestos was a common ingredient in most of these sorts of power plants in early 20th Century Navy vessels.

Construction standards of the day put an emphasis on controlling for the risks of fire while ignoring what was even then known probably very well known about asbestos. This choice allowed asbestos to be liberally used in vessels such as the Cole, for potentially hundreds of uses, incuding in gaskets, tools, weapons, engine rooms, or even hand-held machinery.

Repairs and Upgrades

The Cole’s duties for her first commissioning emphasized American interests in the Middle East, where she also helped save thousands of refugees. As later experts noted, these vessels (always overcrowded, let alone when transporting evacuees) often exposed passengers as well as crew to asbestos. Decommissioned from 1922 to 1930, the Cole began to require refitting for short missions, and even for extended idleness. These long periods of alternating idleness and intense maintenance were often times when asbestos was replaced or added to vessels such as the U.S.S. Cole.

The age of the Cole and the shortage of vessels at the outbreak of WWII also meant she needed frequent repairs. As a screening vessel, she relied on her heavy guns and impressive speed of 35 knots. New WWII Navy and private ship designs often counted on asbestos for fire suppression on ships, such as the U.S.S. Cole DD-155. Additionally, the high temperatures associated with her guns also meant asbestos was liberally used in her superstructure and around those weapons.

Similar Wickes-class destroyers saw their gun bores literally “worn down” by almost constant front-line duty. The U.S.S. Cole’s age also guaranteed upgrades would often be done at sea. Experts later noted such upgrades might well be with what would now be viewed as very inadequate protections against asbestos exposure.

Asbestos Risks On the U.S.S. Cole (DD-155)

Scrapped in 1947, the Cole still remains an example of a highly regarded Naval vessel. Her flexibility and crews’ valor was reflected in receiving several WWII commendations (including the Presidential Unit Citation), such as for making repairs while under fire, when she boldly landed 175 Marines in French Morocco. Asbestos was used as a fire retardant in hundred of places aboard vessels in the Cole era. Concerns over high temperatures also meant that machinery was encased with asbestos, and generous amounts of asbestos were in her gun emplacements and bulkheads.

There were other ways that asbestos was spread throughout the confined areas of vessels, too. Since the Cole became so adept at screening her sister ships, she took beatings from nearby splashdowns, crashes, fragmentary explosions, and weapons fire. Finally, as passing years showed, even scrapping operations posed asbestos risks, as work crews salvaged valuable equipment, but usually without safeguards from asbestos and its fibers.

U.S.S. Collette DD-730 (Allen M. Sumner-Class, Destroyer)

The History of the U.S.S. Collette: Motto, Virtus Velox

The Collette entered service in a crucial time of combat against Japan. The vessel was named for Lieutenant Commander John Collette, an aviator who died in 1942 while leading his US Torpedo Squadron against the Japanese on Santa Cruz Islands. The Collette’s first commander was his brother, James Collette. The U.S.S. Collette served as a screening ship for one of the Pacific Theater’s largest carrier task forces.

In Korea, the ship was instrumental in helping roll back the Chinese, by supporting the invasion at Inchon. The crew received a Navy Unit Commendation for her work at Inchon. The Collette remained on active duty until 1960 and was actually commissioned until 1970. This was about the same time asbestos policy changed for the better. The Collette and her crews won twelve battle stars: six for her crew’s service in WWII and six more in Korea.

Construction

The U.S.S. Collette had her keel laid on October 11, 1943, at one of the oldest shipyards on the East Coast. The Collette launched less than six months later, in March of 1944. The Bath Iron Works in Maine had earned a special reputation both in meeting naval deadlines and innovative designs. Bath Iron Works also used asbestos at various times, and for different purposes. But even with its excellent reputation, many of Bath Iron Work’s most famous vessels used asbestos despite the increasingly likely knowledge (by most manufacturers) of asbestos’s serious health risks.

After her launch, the Collette had a brief shakedown cruise and was on her way to Pearl Harbor in the fall of 1944. The U.S.S. Collette was assigned to screening work with what was to become the famous Fast Carrier Task Force.

Repairs and Upgrades

After leaving Pearl in 1944, the U.S.S. Collette was in constant battle use through the early part of 1945. She was instrumental in shelling Japanese island strongholds, and eventually pulled close enough to shell Honshu itself (the Japanese mainland) in 1945. Experts later noted these intense periods of combat readiness often meant repairs were delayed, dealing with exposed asbestos was often considered to be less pressing than defending against Japanese attacks.

In fact, even if the U.S.S. Collette required extensive overhauling in 1945, it had to wait for America’s frantic last push into Tokyo Harbor itself. Collette steamed into Tokyo Harbor on September 14, 1945. The desperate need for overhauls, however, saw the U.S.S. Collette leave for the US mainland only four days later. Experts later studied these times of overhaul, noting the common replacement of asbestos, from inside vessel hulls, as well as from engine rooms and pumps. The Collette was never decommissioned after WWII. Instead, she was present when official hostilities began in Korea.

Not until 1960 did the U.S.S. Collette get its nickname “Power In Motion.” Though entering her third decade, the vessel earned the name, with her extensive refits and updates. Asbestos was not only a potential risk to the construction workers, but to anyone involved in these very common repairs and upgrades to an aging US Naval warship such as the Collette.

Asbestos Risks On the U.S.S. Collette (DD-730)

Though asbestos was a known medical risk by the time the U.S.S. Collette was built, there were virtually no safeguards for those who were exposed to asbestos. A lawsuit (Bath Iron Works v. Jones) brought by a former Bath Iron Works employee (a pipe coverer) exposed the possibility of wide and common use of asbestos on a vessel such as the US Collette. Similar lawsuits later helped show that these workers’ tools, covered in asbestos, might have held asbestos risks.

Many of the asbestos risks on vessels such as the Collette, with long periods of activity at sea, were made much worse when repairs were made at sea, under cramped, stifling conditions. Asbestos could be present in many unexpected places on ships such as the U.S.S. Collette, since asbestos was used to prevent fire as well as to insulate and protect engine equipment and weapons systems.

What to do with a mothballed ship became a more acute problem as asbestos worries mounted in the 1970s. Eventually, the proud U.S.S. Collette was sold to Argentina, who towed her away. In 1988, the Collette (renamed the Piedra Buena) was sunk in an Argentine missile exercise.

U.S.S. Colhoun DD-85 (Wickes-Class/Destroyer)

The History of the U.S.S. Colhoun:

The Colhoun was named after Edmund Colhoun, who began a long Naval career as a Midshipman in 1839. Colhoun served under famed Admiral Perry. Colhoun also fought in the Mexican War and then served from the beginning of the Civil War until 1883, finally reaching the rank of Rear Admiral. He ended his distinguished career as a Superintendent at Mare Island Navy Yard. Admiral Colhoun’s namesake was also a pioneering vessel, and was the first to use new underwater sounding equipment (1919). Ironically, it was a common practice to use asbestos in protecting valuable equipment from harm. Experts later noted that in 1919 there was already evidence of asbestos causing grave illnesses.

The U.S.S. Colhoun fought valiantly at Guadalcanal in WWII, taking a series of brutal hits before sinking.

Construction

The U.S.S. Colhoun had her keel laid by Fore River Shipyard in Quincy, Massachusetts. The Fore River Shipyard still holds the record as the builder of the largest “pure” sailing ship ever made. The U.S.S. Colhoun served for a year in WWI, screening other vessels and doing sub chasing. Put on reserve status in 1922, she was then refitted in 1940 and overhauled to become a high-speed transport in 1940. The exigencies of the US Navy’s 1930s vessel shortage meant asbestos was commonly used to speed ship construction. In pre-WWII America, US shipbuilding used slightly over 600 million pounds of potentially deadly asbestos every year. By the end of the Second World War, US Naval asbestos use had jumped to at least 783 million pounds per year.

At 315 feet in length, and eventually refitted to reach 35 kn, the U.S.S. Colhoun was one of the famed, early four-stackers that went on to serve in WWII. The ship was designed for a crew of 100, but often carried many more. Often, she rescued and transported hundreds more people: such as when she rescued 194 troops from a stranded transport in 1919. Experts later noted the cramped spaces of the vessels also contributed to the likelihood of asbestos exposure. Most older destroyers (such as the Colhoun) had been redesigned to focus on speed for the crucial Pacific Theatre, to keep up with the light cruisers then being made. These redesigns often meant reliance on asbestos to decrease the dangers of explosions and high temperatures.

Increased production in US shipbuilding meant a certain tolerance for risks and hazards. One common hazard was an avalanche of asbestos in so many of the WWII era’s Liberty Ships. To get effective fire suppression, asbestos was used as a relatively cheap alternative to more costly alternatives. Almost thirty years passed before the full consequences of WWII asbestos exposure was disclosed. Testimony from Navy seamen, such as those who served onboard Wickes-class destroyers (including the redesigned Colhoun), described their exposure to asbestos. Crew members later described finding asbestos not only in the insulation around pipes or engines and in wiring, but also in exposed insulation, which frequently ‘dusted’ them with fibers or dust through the night as they slept a few inches from it.

Repairs and Upgrades

The U.S.S. Colhoun was not unusual in needing extensive refits, which often depended on asbestos in new equipment, redesigned engine rooms, and duct insulation. Just operating the vessel in wartime conditions meant risky repairs and possible asbestos exposure. A common example of the Colhoun’s at-sea repairs occurred, just before the U.S.S. Colhoun accomplished before her sinking in 1942. The Colhoun was awarded a battle star for her exemplary performance in screening, troop transport, and anti-sub patrols. These difficult missions often exposed the Colhoun to near-misses and heavy seas.

The need for emergency repairs, experts later knew, were also times when many crew members acted under extreme urgency, and frequently exposed to asbestos, as they struggled to fight. The day the Colhoun was attacked and sunk (August 30, 1942) she showed unlimited heroism, as fifty-one of the crew died, as she screened other vessels.

Experts point out that by the end of the 1950s, there was still no policy against using asbestos. In fact, the Wickes-class ships were extensively redesigned to accommodate new equipment, again using asbestos, for the Cold War. Among the discoveries about asbestos that came years later was admitting high risks of exposure during repairs and upgrades…especially to aging WWII Naval vessels.

Asbestos Risks On the U.S.S. Colhoun (DD-85)

Although asbestos risks were becoming widely known (Britain had been limiting asbestos use on its vessels for decades), there was little discussion in the US about telling workers or crew members about asbestos dangers. Asbestos was, over the years, to be used virtually everywhere there was reason to worry about fire. This included insulation or sealing ducts, wires, conduits, and almost everywhere in the engine room.

The use of asbestos continued well after the time in which the U.S.S. Colhoun and her crew served. Other Wickes-class ships which survived the U.S.S. Colhoun presented one last asbestos risk, decades later: how to safely salvage valuable equipment, often covered in decaying asbestos. For decades, Congress tried to budget funds to address issues of what to do with mothballed Navy vessels and their asbestos, left from WWII heroes like the Colhoun.

U.S.S. Mayrant DD-402 (Benham-Class Destroyer)

The History of the U.S.S. Mayrant:

The U.S.S. Mayrant was named for John Mayrant, who served in the Revolutionary War, as a Midshipman under the command of John Paul Jones on the famed Bon Homme Richard. Mayrant achieved Admiral’s rank, and the vessel named for him later acted as an escort vessel for President Franklin Roosevelt on a 1940 tour of new Caribbean naval posts, which the US had acquired from Britain. The bases, acquired in a “vessels for bases” deal between the two allies, was coincidental in many ways…including the fact of Great Britain’s having cut use of asbestos in her vessels for decades. It would not be until the 1970s that US Naval policy dealt with asbestos and its real risks.

The U.S.S. Mayrant and her crew fought in many important parts of WWII encounters, helping to sweep away Japan’s mainland defenders. At the end of WWII, the Mayrant and crew had won three battle stars. Her final service is recorded in the annals of the opening nuclear bomb chapters of the Cold War, in 1948.

Construction

The U.S.S. Mayrant DD-402 became part of a desperate American attempt to catch up with the world tide of battle. She was designed and launched as one of the pre-WWII Benham-class destroyers. The reliability of the small class (only 10 were made) showed by her durability…eight were retired, but two vessels were lost in combat.

The U.S.S. Mayrant was constructed at the Boston Navy Yard, with her keel having been laid on April 15, 1937. A fourth-generation descendant of Admiral Mayrant’s christened the vessel at her launching. By the time she entered WWII, she had another famous descendant aboard: FDR, Jr. was the ship’s commander.

Repairs and Upgrades

With a crew complement designed to be only 184, many at-sea emergency repairs on the U.S.S. Mayrant were shared by a highly commended crew. This “pitch in and help” attitude of a small crew may also have meant that the later asbestos illnesses were not limited to engineer’s mates and pipefitters, who were most frequently exposed to asbestos. In the need of a particular emergency, anyone on the crew might be exposed to damaged and exposed asbestos or asbestos dust and fibers, during repairs and upgrades.

The early WWII role of the Mayrant also brought her under potentially heavy fire from German air assaults. An example of this risk came on July 26, 1943, off the Italian coast (Palermo). Luftwaffe dive bombers dropped missiles, striking only two yards away. The near-misses caused extensive hull damage. The engineering section flooded. The entire crew fought to keep the electricity on and water out. She reached Malta in August for temporary repairs, and in November limped back to Charleston for extensive refitting. Mattresses were used to stuff the structural holes. Decades later, doctors were to discover these periods of repair often exposed workers to the dangerously exposed and damaged asbestos, which permeated so many WWII era ships and confined workspaces.

Asbestos Risks On the U.S.S. Mayrant (DD-402)

As with most ships such as on the Benham-class (into the early 1970s), asbestos remained a common way to cost-effectively guard against fires and high heat. Unfortunately, asbestos also carried high risks of many potentially disabling or even deadly diseases. Only after many years were many symptoms fully understood. Later lawsuits helped prove asbestos had very possibly harmed thousands of crew members and shipyard workers. Evidence also suggested some of those who were exposed “second hand” to the asbestos also suffered.

Other problems came from what to do with the mothballed WWII vessels: especially as admissions about asbestos risks came later. Given later evidence proving connections of asbestos to disease caused by service on so many WWII vessels, the final use of the brave old Mayrant was somewhat ironic. Decommissioned in 1946, the U.S.S. Mayrant was used for atomic bomb testing in “Operation Crossroads.” Surviving the blast, the vessel was too contaminated for any further use and was soon destroyed.

U.S.S. McCall DD-400 (Destroyer, Gridley-Class)

The History of the U.S.S. McCall:

Named for Lieutenant Edward McCall, the vessel (escorting the carrier Enterprise) had been en route for Pearl Harbor before December 7, 1941. The U.S.S. McCall was to go on to serve alongside other sister ships of the greatest fame in WWII, including the U.S.S. Yorktown. The McCall was unique: she defied using the traditional four-stacks, and had seen her engine system enormously upgraded from the prior Mahan-class destroyer. Other more common ship building practices of the era included massive amounts of asbestos, and many of these risks were not uncovered until decades later.

By 1944, the U.S.S. McCall (one of only four Gridley-class ships) was an important part of the Pacific Theatre, assigned to the powerful “Rapid Task Force” which was fighting its way toward the Japanese mainland. At the end of her service, the McCall and her crew had won nine battle stars.

Construction

As FDR sensed America would eventually face Japan in war, he determined to rebuild the US Navy forces. Faced with reluctance to “get involved” in European troubles, the Navy wanted the Gridley-class of destroyer to be flexible in her missions. Asbestos was to be part of this flexibility, owing to its low cost and availability. Innovation in the McCall was evident in her Gridley-class speed: allowing the McCall to reach an estimated 38.5 kn. This was the highest recorded speed for any US Navy destroyer.

The abilities of the McCall to sustain such high speeds had implications for her upkeep and repairs. As history proved, the choice to use asbestos in engine rooms also had troubling results, at least in terms of asbestos exposure, on vessels needing frequent repairs to engine cooling and weapons systems. Many of the ways asbestos was used in a vessel’s construction was surprising, and caused unfortunate health results many years later. One asbestos lawsuit, decades after the first exposure to the asbestos, involved a pump commonly (but not always) used by WWII shipyards.

Repairs and Upgrades

During her heavy pre-WWII service, the McCall and her crew were engaged in guarding and screening other vessels. One of her first engagements in 1941 was an exhaustive search for the Japanese fleet that had launched the attack on Pearl. The task force found only one Imperial submarine, which was sunk. Many years later, it seemed that the costs of these often deadly encounters had a long-lasting effect. After her continued long-term escort and screening missions, the McCall finally steamed home to San Francisco, and spent the last two months of 1943 and early months of 1944 in San Francisco’s Naval Yard for repairs. Once again, any hesitation about using asbestos was secondary to keeping vessels such as the U.S.S. McCall battle ready.

A typical example of the urgency of the crew repairs at sea was in the pitched battle of The Philippine Seas, where the final tide of battle finally turned in the United State’s favor. With advances in WWII technology, the McCall was refitted in New York, as the war wound down. Sophisticated new monitoring equipment was brought aboard in the summer of 1945. In so doing, crew members on vessels such as the McCall who did the refitting were often, once again, exposed to the asbestos used to seal miles of new wiring.

Asbestos Risks On the U.S.S. McCall (DD-400)

The risks on vessels such as the McCall, historians pointed out, often came from some unexpected sources. It did not help that very few crew members ever knew of the dangers of asbestos, Yet, crew members did later complain of breathing asbestos, from many different places on US Naval vessels. Different types of asbestos (with different risks) were used in preventing fires or controlling high temperatures. This meant asbestos was a preferred material inside of many types of ship machinery, even if manufacturers did have reason to know it was potentially unhealthy.

In the 1940s, US Navy had discussed some of the known risks of asbestos with some West Coast shipyard manufacturers. Decades later, as symptoms related to asbestos became obvious, the US Navy finally began changing its asbestos use policy. But these changes came too late for many vessel crew members. The changes to Navy asbestos policy did not take full hold until the 1970s. The McCall had been struck from Navy rolls long before these safety changes. The U.S.S. McCall DD-400, which had protected and screened so many sister ships, was scrapped for metal in 1948 by the Hugo Neu Corporation.

U.S.S. McCalla DD-253 (Destroyer, Clemson-Class)

The History of the U.S.S. McCalla:

This World War I ship was named for a US Marine, Bowman H. McCalla, who started his career as a Navy midshipman. From the Civil War, through protecting the Isthmus, and even to fighting in the Boxer Rebellion, Bowman McCalla answered his Nation’s call of duty and eventually reached Admiral’s rank. As with her namesake, the U.S.S. McCalla and her sister-class ships (the Clemson-class, with its 156 vessels) saw some of the heaviest fighting during her service. Twenty vessels in the class were eventually lost to the enemy. To keep these older vessels in the fight often called for heroic measures, and as history later proved, had additional risks of asbestos exposure.

The McCalla was lost (as a British vessel) within weeks of the sneak attack on Pearl Harbor. These dark days of worry for the American Navy created a sense of real urgency in shipbuilding, as experts believed the war with Japan would rest on testing the two nations’ naval strengths. Experts also noted the use of asbestos, which had been discontinued as a health hazard in other nations, was often accepted as a way to more quickly rebuild the decimated American Navy. Ironically, asbestos was also at first justified as a way to protect lives.

Construction

The McCalla’s keel was laid at the famous Fore River yard in Quincy, Massachusetts, on September 25, 1918. As World War I had wound down, many contracts (such as for the McCalla) for Naval vessels were rushed to completion. The US government also concentrated its work with fewer shipyards. By the start of World War II, older vessels like U.S.S. McCalla, often laden with outdated asbestos, were desperately needed.

This mix of economy and versatility also reflected some of the vessel building practices at the time, as critics argued safety rules were dangerously ignored or relaxed. Asbestos, the use of which had been banned in several countries before the war, saw an explosion in use by US shipyards, sometimes even tripling in its total volume of use in vessels. Many major yards of the WWII era, even though sold to later owners in the 1950s and after, failed to avoid a legal duty for what turned out to be an epidemic of asbestos-related illnesses.

Repairs and Upgrades

The McCalla was transferred to the desperate British navy in 1941. This trade for an aging US vessel was interesting, in part because it was Britain that had led the fight against using asbestos in peacetime. World War II changed the rules of asbestos use.

Repairing vessels, like the aging McCalla, was tough work under the best of circumstances. Unknown to almost all crew members was the possibility that the heavy use of asbestos very often meant they were at risk of contracting possibly deadly disorders and diseases.

Resulting exposure to asbestos on vessels such as the McCalla took place over decades, since the policy of using asbestos was slow to change (only in the 1970s did the Navy phase out asbestos). Owing to its reliability and design, the McCalla remained a popular vessel for much of that time. In terms of asbestos, this also meant long-term exposure to asbestos as it deteriorated.

Asbestos Risks On the U.S.S. McCalla (DD-253)

The Bowman-class of aging vessels, such as the McCalla, meant new risks in handling asbestos would emerge in WWII. Miles of cable might need removal, making way for newer equipment…which also, in turn, used asbestos as a fire retardant. Even bulkheads might use asbestos as insulation, along with asbestos in weapons systems and throughout renovated engine compartments.

Wartime conditions on a vessel such as the U.S.S. McCalla probably meant there was an unnecessary use of asbestos. Various engine room pumps, for example, were later shown to have been able to run without any asbestos. The possible dangers of battle, and uncertainty about how parts were going to be used led some manufacturers to use asbestos in gaskets and machinery that might not otherwise be susceptible to fire or heat. As a result, many surprising cases of asbestos-related illnesses to all types of crew or shipyard workers were discovered in coming decades.

U.S.S. Hopewell (DD-681)

The vessel was named for Midshipman Pollard Hopewell, who had lost his life defending his ship (the famous U.S.S. Chesapeake) against a British frigate’s attack in the War of 1812. Bethlehem Steel Company laid the keel for his namesake vessel on October 29, 1942. Due to the need for rapid deployments, Fletcher-class destroyers (such as the U.S.S. Hopewell DD-681) relied on almost indiscriminate use of asbestos to help safeguard against fires and enemy shelling. By 1944, the U.S.S. Hopewell had become an important part of the Pacific vanguard, which was “leap frogging” its way toward mainland Japan. The crew adopted as its motto “Offense, Defense,” echoing Pollard Hopewell’s own vessel’s motto from back in 1813, “Never Give Up The Ship.”

The Hopewell had the advantage of achieving greater range than earlier destroyers (6,500 nautical miles), which also added to the required skills of the Hopewell’s crew, to deal with any emergency repair at sea. Ultimately, this high level of her crews’ skills may have ironically exposed more crewmembers to the dangers of asbestos. In the 1960s, a greatly renovated Hopewell became a part of NATO’s defenses against aggressive Communist challenges.

That new “Offense, Defense” included the Hopewell’s sailing the “gunline” in Vietnam. The Hopewell and her crew also demonstrated a unique ability for the US Navy to change its mission skills, from WWII to the Vietnam war. The Hopewell and her crew won nine battle stars in WWII, four Korean war battle stars, and several service awards for outstanding tours of duty in Vietnam.

Construction

The U.S.S. Hopewell was not only built very quickly (in just a little over six months) at Bethlehem Steel’s San Pedro, California yard, but the Navy also demanded that Bethlehem make her flexible in her mission capacity. This flexibility had implications for addressing her frequent repairs and then, after WWII, her upgrades too. As the U.S.S. Hopewell’s long history of service suggested, the problems of updating an older vessel often meant asbestos exposure was a larger risk. Unlike hundreds of other similar vessels, the Hopewell was not decommissioned for any long period of time. This aging but dependable Naval destroyer needed more frequent repairs, including to the systems that typically relied most on asbestos: engines, insulation, and wiring.

Sometimes, asbestos was used in surprising ways. Symptoms of asbestos exposure multiplied in the decades after WWII. Experts in lawsuits showed connections between asbestos use on other Fletcher-class destroyers and the declining health of Naval crews.

Repairs and Upgrades

During her heavy WWII service, the Hopewell and her crew were almost immediately engaged in combat, preparing for the crucial Marshall Islands invasion. One of her early engagements off of Corregidor was fierce enough to result in her being riddled with fragments, and taking more than 17 casualties. Many years later, experts noted that the costs of these often deadly short-term encounters also could have long-lasting effects. These emergency repairs often caused crew exposure to potential sources of asbestos.

Another example of the urgency of the U.S.S. Hopewell crew’s making repairs at sea was long after WWII. In 1955, training exercises went awry, and an attack bomber crashed on her deck. Once again, any hesitation about using asbestos was secondary for keeping vessels such as the U.S.S. Hopewell in action. Also after WWII, sophisticated new monitoring equipment was brought in to help fight in Korea. In making these upgrades, crew members were often once again unwittingly exposed to asbestos.

Asbestos Risks On the U.S.S. Hopewell (DD-681)

Few crew members learned of the dangers of asbestos, even as they often complained of breathing it in from many different places on a vessel such as the U.S.S. Hopewell. Asbestos was admittedly useful in preventing fires, or in controlling high temperatures, but few laymen were told of asbestos’ known health risks.

In the 1940s, officials and scientists had privately discussed some of the known risks of asbestos with some West Coast shipyard manufacturers. Decades later, as symptoms related to asbestos became obvious, the US Navy finally began changing its asbestos use policy. But these changes all too often came too late for vessel crews such as those who served aboard the U.S.S. Hopewell. From 1960 through part of 1967, the Hopewell provided powerful and effective support to US soldiers in the Vietnam war. Changes to Navy asbestos policy really began in the 1970s, but the Hopewell was struck from Navy rolls almost as these positive changes in asbestos finally occurred. In 1972, the proud U.S.S. Hopewell DD-681, which had protected so many other ships, was herself sunk as a deep water target.

U.S.S. Melvin (DD-680)

The vessel was the second destroyer to be named for John Melvin, who was a valiant Marine who rose to hold the rank of Lieutenant (jg). Lieutenant Melvin was the first US Navy officer to die in World War I, after his vessel (the patrol boat Alcedo) was sunk by a German U-boat in November, 1917. The vessel named for Lieutenant Melvin may also have passed on another, less welcome legacy: long undiscovered injuries, caused by asbestos on many Fletcher-class destroyers.

Between 1942 and 1944, American shipyards made 175 vessels of this destroyer class. The popularity of the Fletcher also meant Melvin and her sister ships were one of the most common surviving type of WWII US Navy destroyers. Over time, special concerns arose about the way asbestos was used in these vessels.

Construction

The U.S.S. Melvin DD-680 had her keel laid on July 6, 1943. Federal Shipbuilding and Drydock Company launched the vessel in October, 1943. She was a nimble ship for a destroyer, at something just over 2,000 tons, and with under a 17 foot draft. At the same time, Melvin used some of the first geared turbines. Decades later, studies suggested that asbestos was a common ingredient in such power plants.

Construction standards of the day put an emphasis on controlling fire hazards while minimizing concern about what was even then probably known about asbestos. This seemingly economical, short-term choice allowed asbestos to be liberally used in vessels such as the Melvin, in dozens of uses….in gaskets, engine rooms, or even hand-held machinist mate’s tools.

Repairs and Upgrades

The Melvin’s duties for her first commissioning emphasized American interests in the Far East, where she also helped save thousands of refuges. As later experts noted, these vessels (overcrowded, with a complement of 273 in the vessel’s 376-foot length) often exposed passengers as well as crew to asbestos. Decommissioned after Korea, in 1954, the Melvin began to require upkeep for her extended times of idleness. This period of idleness and intense maintenance was also possibly when asbestos was likely to be replaced (or added) to vessels such as USS Melvin. Valuable equipment, with asbestos used to insulate machinery and wiring, was probably removed: once again, a time of potential asbestos exposure.

The immediate need for the Melvin and the shortage of destroyers at the start of WWII also meant she would carry a heavy load of patrol at sea, and she needed more frequent repairs to accomplish her missions. As a screening vessel, she relied on her heavy guns and impressive speed of 38 knots. The WWII Navy ship designs counted on asbestos for fire suppression on ships such as the U.S.S. Melvin DD-680. Finally, high temperatures associated with her guns also meant asbestos was generously used, not only in her superstructure but also around weapon systems.

Similar Fletcher-class destroyers reported to Navy engineers that gun bores had been literally “worn down” by almost constant front-line duty. The U.S.S. Melvin’s importance in the Pacific also guaranteed upgrades would often be done at sea. Experts later noted such upgrades and “replenishment at sea” demands could also have meant inadequate protections against asbestos exposure.

Asbestos Risks On the U.S.S. Melvin (DD-680)

The U.S.S. Melvin remains an example of a highly regarded US Naval vessel. Her crews’ valor was reflected in receiving several commendations (plus 10 Battle Stars in WWII), and the crew repeatedly made crucial repairs while under enemy fire. For sub hunting, asbestos was also used as a fire retardant in hundred of places (especially in lower levels affected by depth charges) for vessels in this dangerous mission. Concerns over high temperatures also meant heat-sensitive machinery was frequently encased with asbestos, and generous amounts of asbestos were in both the gun emplacements and the bulkheads.

There were other ways that asbestos was spread throughout the confined areas of vessels, too. Since the Melvin became so adept at screening her sister ships, she took beatings from nearby splashdowns, Kamikaze crashes (especially at the Marshalls), and fragmentary explosions. Finally, as passing years showed, even scrapping operations (the Melvin was finally sold for scrap in 1975) posed asbestos risks, as work crews salvaged valuable equipment, too often without enough safeguards from asbestos and its fibers.